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Seeds are cylindrical antibiotic levofloxacin joint pain discount 100mg doxycycline fast delivery, ribbed and grey-brown rotating antibiotics for acne purchase doxycycline 100mg otc, attached to fluffy antibiotic beginning with c buy cheap doxycycline line, white filaments for wind-dispersal; numerous seeds are arranged in a tight infection game buy 100mg doxycycline with amex, spherical cluster such that their filaments collectively resemble a snowball (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). Distribution: this plant is most likely native to Eurasia, cosmopolitan in range, commonly grows in disturbed open areas and is sometimes cultivated for its edible greens (Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976). However, one report indicates that children who consumed the milky latex from the flower stem have experienced nausea, diarrhea, vomiting and cardiac arrhythmia (DeSmet 1993). In a survey conducted in Italy of women who visited outpatient hospital 250 facilities, some respondents reported adverse gastrointestinal effects from taking dandelion (Cuzzolin et al. In a chronic toxicity study in rabbits, no toxic effects were observed when they were given 6 g/kg orally for up to 7 days (Akhtar et al. Contraindications: this herb is contraindicated for those with the following conditions: occlusion of the bile ducts, cholecystitis or small bowel obstruction (Fugh-Berman 2003, Weiss 1988). The root may be contraindicated in patients with acute stomach inflammation or irritable bowel conditions due to potential hyperacidity from stimulation of gastric secretions. For individuals with digestive weakness, the root may provoke gastrointestinal upset, gas and loose stools. In patients with gallstones, bile duct obstruction and biliary or gall bladder inflammation (with pus), caution is advised due to the demonstrated cholagogue activity of the root. As this herb is a laxative, use in individuals with intestinal obstruction may also be contraindicated (Brinker 1998). Drug Interactions: Lithium toxicity may be exacerbated as a result of sodium depletion from the diuretic effects of the leaves and root and the sodium excretion that accompanies this effect; however, this herbdrug interaction is hypothetical and has not been substantiated by clinical data (Brinker 1998). A related species (Taraxacum mongolicum Hand-Mazz), which is used in Chinese medicine (common name: Pu gong ying) for its antibacterial and hepatoprotective effects, has been shown to interact with a fluoroquinolone by decreasing maximum plasma concentrations of ciprofloxacin by 73% in rats when both the herb (an aqueous extract of 2 g whole herb/kg) and drug (20 mg/kg ciprofloxacin) were administered concomitantly (Zhu et al. In animal studies, the root did not show diuretic effects and the herb did not show hypoglycemic effects (see "Effect Not Demonstrated" table below). According to the 5-Minute Herb & Dietary Supplement Consult, "Dandelion leaf is a benign vegetable and medicinal herb with poorly documented but easily demonstrable diuretic effects" (FughBerman 2003). The antioxidant activity of the flowers may have applications for cardiovascular health considering the demonstrated association between increased dietary intake of flavonoids and reduced incidence of ischemic heart disease. This effect is possibly due to the antioxidant effects of flavonoids (Halliwell 1995; Hu and Kitts 2005; Hollman and Katan 1999; Geleijnse et al. Biologically active constituents of this plant include: caffeic acid, coumestrol, cycloartenol, faradiol, p-coumaric acid, taraxasterol and xanthophylls. The root is high in inulin and contains mannitol, mucilage, nicotinic acid, pectins, taraxerol and tyrosinase (Duke & Beckstrom-Sternberg 1998). Raw dandelion greens are a significant source of calcium, folate, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, B6, C, E and K (U. Indications and Usage: Typical dosage amounts provided in Fugh-Berman (2003) are as follows: Leaf Adults: 4-10 g dried herb in capsules or by infusion 3 times daily; 2-5 mL tincture (1:5, ethanol 25% 251 V/V) three times daily; or 5-10 mL juice from fresh leaf twice daily; Root - Adults: 3-5 g dried root in capsules or by infusion three times daily; 5-10 mL tincture (1:5, ethanol 25%) three times daily. Effects of Portulaca oleracea (Kulfa) and Taraxacum officinale (Dhudhal) in normoglycaemic and alloxan-treated rabbits. Inverse association of tea and flavonoid intakes with incident myocardial infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flower extract suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide and prevents lipid oxidation in vitro. Activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase by Taraxacum officinale in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Taraxacum officinale inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha production from rat astrocytes. Inhibition of alpha-glucosidase by aqueous extracts of some potent antidiabetic medicinal herbs. The action of Taraxacum officinale extracts on the body weight and diuresis of laboratory animals. Glycaemic effects of traditional European plant treatments for diabetes: studies in normal and streptozotocin diabetic mice. Traditional Preparation: the leaves are typically prepared as a tea or boiled to release their volatile oils for steam inhalation. Also, steam inhalation of the vapor from the boiled leaves is used to relieve sinus congestion, cough and pulmonary infections.

Again antimicrobial wood sealer buy doxycycline 100mg fast delivery, reversible imprints are unnecessary (beyond whatever is needed for the silencing or ejection of the paternal chromosome) infection of the spine buy 100mg doxycycline with amex. But in eutherian mammals virus 68 michigan discount 200 mg doxycycline free shipping, females are mosaics antimicrobial journal 200mg doxycycline with visa, with the maternal X silenced in some cells and the paternal X silenced in others (Lyon 1961). Here we expect the usual pattern of the paternally derived X being more selfish than the maternal X in promiscuous species. There are additional possibilities for imprinting of sex-linked genes under monandry. If all the progeny of a mother have the same father, the paternal X chromosome in a female will be found in all her sisters, but (obviously) none of her brothers. Thus, a paternally active X-linked gene that consumed brothers to benefit self or sisters would spread. The opposite argument applies to the Y chromosome in a male, which would value self and brothers to the exclusion of sisters. A female developing between 2 males is masculinized to her own disadvantage, development is slowed, and-compared to a female raised between 2 females-lifetime reproductive success (in the lab) is cut by one-half (Clark et al. The same pattern is found for males: benefits from male neighbors, costs from female (Clark et al. But mice released into nature show little effects of prior intrauterine position on survival and reproduction (Zielinski et al. Paternal Xs are expected to try to create a female-benefiting uterine environment and Ys a 134 Genomic Imprinting male-benefiting one, regardless of cost to the opposite sex, while maternal Xs and autosomes want a more gender-neutral environment. Unfortunately, little is known of the degree of polyandry in nature for either gerbils or mice, or whether degree of monandry across species correlates with degree of intrauterine effects. Note that a mammal species switching from polyandry to monandry would simultaneously reduce selection for imprinting on autosomes while selecting for sex-specific benefits from the paternal X and Y. An interaction between autosomes and the paternal X could occur in the monandrous species. Paternal Xs could activate paternal autosomal genes otherwise newly silenced or might oppose movement to biallelic expression of maternal genes. Another factor in the evolution of sex-chromosome imprinting is that it could be used as a way to encode sexual dimorphism, at least in eutherians (Iwasa and Pomiankowski 2001). For example, if the paternally derived allele is silenced, the gene is expressed in all the cells of a male but in only half the cells of a female. And, if the maternally derived allele is silenced, the gene is expressed in half the cells of a female but not at all in a male. Such effects may be particularly important in the evolution of sexually dimorphic expression patterns for early-expressed genes, before circulating sex hormones are available as a signal of sex. It appears to have an imprinted gene or genes that affect positively the degree of sociability and social intelligence. There are also subtle effects on memory, including one test on which females with only the paternal X do better (Bishop et al. It is also noteworthy that some of these tests imply that imprinting affects hemispheric specialization (for a paternal X effect on brain morphology, see Kesler et al. It is as yet unclear whether imprinting in this case evolved due to kinship conflicts or sexually dimorphic selection pressures. Even within eutherians, there are differences: in mice, while most tissues show random X inactivation, in the extraembryonic trophoblast it is always the paternal X that is inactivated. Interestingly, this appears to be due to a paternally active gene on the X that causes the rest of the X to become inactive (Lee and Jaenisch 1997). Why might the paternal X be selected to shut itself down in mouse trophoblast (and perhaps also in marsupials, though it is not clear yet whether this is due to an X-linked gene) He argues that on the X chromosome allelic substitutions at unimprinted loci are expected to be biased in favor of matrilines. This is true as long as there is no differential imprinting of sons versus daughters because then 2 Xs arrive from matrilines (mother) each generation and only 1 from a patriline (father). If these effects are sometimes dosage-sensitive, a paternally active gene may be favored that reduces dosage of the matrilineally biased genes by shutting down the entire chromosome. This, we imagine, would usually be associated with a substantial cost, and we prefer the simpler idea that X inactivation evolved in parallel with the degeneration of the Y chromosome, so the X- and Y-bearing gametes from a male were largely equivalent in gene expression. Random X-inactivation might then have replaced paternal X-inactivation, in order to mask the effect of deleterious recessive mutations (Chandra and Brown 1975).

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It is interesting in this regard that mutant elements sometimes have higher transposition rates than wildtype virus kids ers doxycycline 200mg amex. For example antimicrobial socks buy doxycycline with a visa, the transposition rate of Ty1 elements of yeast antimicrobial body soap trusted 200mg doxycycline, which is normally 10-5 to 10-7 in the lab antibiotic lock therapy idsa buy cheap doxycycline 100mg line, can be increased more than 1000-fold to 0. For Ty5, transposition rates can be increased 40-fold by changing just 2 amino acids in gag (Gao et al. Similarly, changing 1 or 2 amino acids in the transposase from the Himar1 element of a hornfly (Haematobia irritans) can make it several-fold more active (Lampe et al. But it is not yet certain whether these various mutations are disrupting some element adaptation for prudent transposition, or whether they are preventing host detection and suppression. It would be interesting to put wildtype and engineered elements into direct competition in a laboratory population. We saw earlier that in order for there to be a stable equilibrium copy number of transposable elements per genome, either the transposition rate per element (t) has to decline with increasing copy number or the deleterious effect of each insert (s) has to increase. Presumably at least 1 of these 2 relationships holds for all transposable elements. This suggests that at low copy numbers the transposition rate (per element) will be higher than at high copy numbers, for at very low copy numbers, when only 1 of the 2 parents will typically have an element, half the time the transposition rate should be high. Inverse relationships between transposable element activity and copy number have also been suggested for mariner elements of Drosophila and Ac elements of maize (Lohe and Hartl 1996, Kunze and Weil 2002). Is this self-regulation by the elements themselves or suppression by the larger host genome, and how is the effect achieved One can easily imagine benefits to self-regulation, especially because multiple elements attempting to transpose simultaneously may be particularly harmful to the host organism (recall the association in dysgenic crosses between high transposition rates and sterility). Even in vitro, the transposition rate of Himar1 is reported to increase initially with the concentration of transposase, and then to decrease (Lampe et al. The "overexpression inhibition" of Himar1 could result from a concentration-dependent tendency of the transposase to form inactive aggregates (see also Heinlein et al. It would be interesting to see whether mutant transposons can be generated that do not show this self-inhibition, and to test whether they are responsive to their own copy number in vivo. Other possible mechanisms by which transposable elements could actively control their copy number are described in Box 7. On the other hand, any reduction in the per capita transposition rate at high copy number may have nothing to do with the element itself, and everything to do with the host. Eukaryotes appear to have a number of mechanisms that suppress genes according to the number of copies in the genome. In a particularly instructive study, a mutational screen was performed for increased transposition of Tc1 elements in C. Because similar mechanisms may be found in transposable elements, we review the 2 main classes of control mechanism (from Summers 1996). Plasmids using this mechanism produce a transacting replication inhibitor whose concentration is proportional to copy number. As copy number increases, the concentration of the inhibitor increases, and replication rates fall, thus stabilizing copy number. Plasmids using this mechanism produce a protein that is rate-limiting for replication and that inhibits its own transcription (autorepression). This negative feedback loop means that the concentration of the protein (and therefore total replication rate) is constant, and independent of copy number. A constant total replication rate per cell means that the rate per element is inversely proportional to copy number. One way that some host taxa suppress their transposable elements is by methylating them. Have these been maintained in order to facilitate methylation-induced silencing, thereby allowing selfregulation Curiously, while methylation of an Ac element is associated with a lack of transcription, it does not interfere with the ability of the element to be transposed if other elements in the genome are transcribed (Kunze et al. This is surprising-because the transposase is likely to have come from an unmethylated element, we might have expected it to have evolved to recognize only unmethylated elements and thereby increase the probability of transposing the element from which it was derived. Finally, copy numbers can be stabilized not only by the transposition rate decreasing with copy number, but also by the selective disadvantage of each insert increasing.

One possible explanation (among several) for their rarity is that they frequently cause extinction soon after arising antibiotic resistance powerpoint cheap 100 mg doxycycline otc. In addition can you take antibiotics for sinus infection while pregnant generic doxycycline 100 mg online, transposable elements are known to inflate genome size in plants antibiotic names buy online doxycycline, and in plants increasing genome size is strongly associated with increased risk of extinction (see Chap antibiotics for diphtheroids uti doxycycline 200 mg with visa. Thus effects at the level of species or clade may affect the incidence of some selfish genetic elements. There is also a practical reason to be interested in the effects of various selfish genetic elements on population productivity. Despite much effort, many species harmful to humans are beyond current methods of control. Selfish genetic elements seem, in many ways, ideal tools for population control, and our ever-more-detailed molecular understanding of how they work makes such control increasingly likely (see Chap. The Study of Selfish Genetic Elements the history of the study of selfish genetic elements can be summarized in a few sentences. The existence of selfish genetic elements has been known since of the birth of genetics more than 100 years ago, but their selfish nature has been appreciated only more recently. The elements best studied-with some fortunate exceptions-are those found in the genetic model organisms (Drosophila, mice, maize, and yeast). And, finally, only recently has it become generally appreciated that selfish elements are widespread and that they have had important coevolutionary effects on the larger genetic system. We have also noted some important conceptual advances, broad syntheses, and, more recently, the devotion of entire journal issues to the topic, signaling the degree to which selfish elements are now seen as a subject of significance. Advances in the 1990s were so rapid and extensive that making a list of milestones after 1990 would be an increasingly arbitrary task. Likewise, B chromosomes are easily seen under the microscope and they were first described in the same year, by Wilson. Other early discoveries were driving X chromosomes in Drosophila (due to some crosses producing almost all daughters) and the t haplotype of mice (observable due to the happy accident of creating tailless mice in a particular mutant background). Some selfish genetic elements have been intensively studied because of their practical importance or medical relevance. Cytoplasmic male sterile systems, for example, have proven valuable to crop breeders in producing hybrid seeds without the need to hand-emasculate plants that otherwise might self-fertilize. Early work on driving Y chromosomes in mosquitoes was motivated in part by their potential use in population control. And much work on transposable elements has been stimulated by the discovery that they can be used to genetically engineer Drosophila and other species. Transposable elements have also been well studied because our own genomes contain 2 active families, which occasionally cause mutations and thus disease. Much research into genomic imprinting has also been motivated by its involvement in several genetic disorders in humans. In the dozen years since the discovery of the first 2 imprinted genes in mice in 1990, more than 60 such genes have been described in mice (and almost as many in humans). For much of the 20th century, conceptual advances in the field were only loosely correlated with the empirical discoveries. Perhaps the first discussion of genes increasing in frequency purely because of biased transmission involved the driving X chromosome of Drosophila pseudoobscura (Gershenson 1928; Sturtevant and Dobzhansky 1936). But for many other selfish genes, decades have passed between first discovery and the realization that the gene can spread purely through a transmission advantage. Transposable elements were first described in 1952, but it was not until 1980 that papers appeared suggesting they were selfish. More recently, the interval between discovery and interpretation has shortened: For example, the first imprinted genes were discovered in mice in 1990, and their fit to kinship expectations noted only a year later. As the study of selfish genetic elements has matured, a specialized vocabulary has developed-though, as usual, much of the terminology came long after the central ideas were first conceived. The term "selfish gene" was first introduced as the title of a popular book by Dawkins (1976) to capture the increasingly gene-centered view of evolution that developed during the 20th century; he used it to refer to all genes. But genes that affect other individuals can be cooperative, altruistic, and even spiteful, while within individuals most genes are cooperative. Thus, in the scientific literature "selfish gene" is now used almost exclusively to refer to the minority of genes that spread at a cost to the organism. To be more inclusive about the underlying molecular structure, which can range from a gene fragment to a complete chromosome, or set of chromosomes, we prefer the more general term "selfish genetic element" (Werren et al. Other authors have used "outlaw gene" (Alexander and Borgia 1978), "ultraselfish gene" (Crow 1988) and "self-promoting genetic element" (Hurst et al.