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I n f l u e n c e o f To b a c c o M a r k e t i n g o n S m o k i n g B e h a v i o r Gilpin et al medicine 968 discount 100 mg prometrium fast delivery. The positive effect for protobacco advertising was greater than the negative effect for antitobacco advertising symptoms stomach flu purchase 200 mg prometrium overnight delivery. Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) Study Setting/sample size Goldberg 2003 130 Over 1 86 treatment ideas practical strategies purchase prometrium on line amex,700 14- to 17-year-old Hong Kong students Goldstein et al medicine daughter lyrics discount prometrium 100 mg without prescription. However, those who smoke at least occasionally were more likely to rate smoking as having a variety of positive benefits. Ratings of opinions about what 3-level status: (1) never tried, cigarette advertising conveyed (2) tried, and (3) occasional. Susceptibility was based on answers to 3 questions: If one of your best friends were to offer you a cigarette, would you smoke it Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) 248 Weekly exposure to retail tobacco marketing was associated with a 50% increase in the odds of ever smoking, even when controlling for parent and peer smoking. Retail marketing exposure was second only to owning a cigarette promotional item in increasing the odds of ever smoking. All levels of receptivity to advertising were significantly associated with being a susceptible never smoker and with being an experimenter (ever tried or experimented, even a few puffs) or a regular smoker. Being an experimenter was not significantly associated with owning an item, and being a regular smoker was not associated with having a favorite advertisement. Study Setting/sample size Hawkins and Hane 2000 133 843 middle/junior high-school age students from a large midwestern metropolitan area Henriksen et al. I n f l u e n c e o f To b a c c o M a r k e t i n g o n S m o k i n g B e h a v i o r Kaufman et al. Samples of advertisements Ever smoking (with brand information removed) from 42 magazines and 2 newspapers for measuring (1) recall (proportion of cigarette, perfume, or alcohol advertisements previously seen by students), (2) proportion of cigarette advertisements for which product was recognized, and (3) proportion of advertisements for which the brand was recognized Self-reported exposure to various cigarette-marketing stimuli; attitude toward cigarette advertisements as attractive (liking) 5-level status: (1) never smoked; (2) tried; (3) used to smoke but not now; (4) sometimes, but less than once/week; and (5) 6+ cigarettes/week Knowledge of sport sponsorship. Children also listed the amount of their viewing time of recent snooker championship on British television Self-reported exposure to snooker championships on British television, the first sponsored by Benson & Hedges and the second sponsored by Embassy brand Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) Study Setting/sample size Klitzner et al. The first survey included 5 secondary schools; the second survey included only 3 of the original 5 schools but surveyed 880 students from the same number of classes selected at random At the time of the first survey, Benson & Hedges sponsored the snooker championship. The cigarette brands best known to the children and most associated by them with sports were the ones most heavily promoted by television sponsorship, including brands other than Benson & Hedges. The authors contend that sports sponsorship serves as cigarette advertising to children. With this variable in the model, none of the individual exposure variables was significant. Awareness of advertising was high, but authors did not report a relationship between awareness and smoking status. Awareness of and involvement with tobacco marketing were both significantly associated with being a current smoker, even when controlling for social influences. Further, the higher the level of awareness and involvement with tobacco marketing, the higher was the smoking status level, indicating a doseresponse relationship. There were significantly less negative attitudes toward smoking among those who thought cigarette advertising should be allowed. Greater awareness of sporting event sponsorship and agreement that advertising should be allowed were reported among smokers and triers than among nonsmokers (latter 2 associations not tested statistically). Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) 250 Tobacco advertising awareness (can you name a cigarette or tobacco brand Ownership or willingness to use a cigarette promotional item, analyzed as separate variables Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) Study Setting/sample size Mowery et al. Liking for cigarette advertising increased from the precontemplation to the action stage. Otake and Shimai 2002142 Attitude (liking) toward advertising Stages of smoking acquisition (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, and action) based on 4 smoking questions: (1) interested in smoking Ever smoked 409 7th graders and 348 8th graders in an urban area of Japan Peters et al. Findings Attitude-opinions of cigarette advertisements as exciting, interesting, eyecatching, glamorous, or witty Cross-Sectional Studies of the Association of Tobacco Marketing with Adolescent Smoking (continued) 252 Receptivity-ownership of cigarette promotional items, specification of favorite brand Being a smoker or being further along the smoking uptake continuum was more likely if a participant owned a cigarette promotional item, even when controlling for social influences to smoke. The more cigarette promotional items owned, the further along the initiation continuum the students were. Even when controlling for social influences to smoke, experimentation was significantly greater for those with more exposure to magazine advertisements or in-store advertisements, receipt of mailings from a cigarette company, or ownership of promotional items.
Paid Placement in Movies Made in India and Nigeria Information on paid placement of tobacco products in movies by U medications in spanish best 100mg prometrium. In the absence of similar investigations and industry document disclosure in other countries treatment conjunctivitis prometrium 100 mg without a prescription, it is difficult to determine whether tobacco depictions in movies made outside the United States are the result of promotional payments from tobacco companies medicine song buy prometrium from india. A key observation is that 45 (41%) of the movies displayed a specific brand of tobacco (usually a shot of the cigarette pack) or include a verbal mention of the brand name medication 3 checks cheap prometrium 100 mg. Thus, the substantial increase in brand exposures in Indian movies, coinciding with legislative restrictions on tobacco advertising, suggests that paid placement is occurring. Further suggestive evidence comes from disclosures by several Indian movie actors, producers, and directors that they have received requests from tobacco companies for tobacco brand endorsements or product placements. India produces about 1,000 films a year (accounting for more than one-quarter of the global film production by volume), in more than eight languages, seen by more than 188 million persons each year. Cable and satellite television features more than 10 movie channels showing movies around the clock. Pirated copies of films are viewed in India by an estimated 230,000 people each day. Mainstream Indian films target an estimated 250 million youth in India, and the films appeal to millions of diaspora Indians in South Asia, the Middle East, and parts of the United Kingdom, United States, Europe, and Africa. As noted above in the case of Bollywood movies, the visibility of brand placements in several of the movies suggests that paid product placement has occurred. Nollywood movies are popular across the African continent and are brought to Europe and North America by expatriates, where they are distributed to the African diaspora. Ty p e s a n d E x t e n t o f To b a c c o A d v e r t i s i n g a n d P r o m o t i o n ban on paid product placement in the United States; however, it did not include a prohibition on providing free products, signs, or other props. On May 31 (World No Tobacco Day), 2005, the health minister of India announced new rules banning all scenes showing smoking, cigarette packs, or tobacco advertisements in movies and television programs, to become effective as law in August of that year. The Role of the Media Expenditures on Advertising and Promotion for Cigarettes From 1940 to 2005, the tobacco industry spent about $250 billion on cigarette advertising and promotion-averaging more than $10 million per day. The unadjusted expenditure in 2005 is equivalent to $63 per person aged 18 years and older, or $47 per capita for the entire population (using 2000 census data). The total annual expenditures from 1970 to 2005 (in 5-year increments until 1995, and then annually) are presented in table 4. The nature of the expenditures, following the definitions provided earlier, are detailed in table 4. The "price discounts" category now accounts for the overwhelming percentage of advertising and promotional expenditures (77. Once the "price discounts" category is extracted, the two categories that earlier accounted for the bulk of marketing expenditures are now considerably diminished: 1. In 2005, just under $1 billion, or just under 7% of total marketing expenditures, was spent on "promotional allowances. Ty p e s a n d E x t e n t o f To b a c c o A d v e r t i s i n g a n d P r o m o t i o n Figure 4. Adjusted expenditures are adjusted to 2006 dollars using the consumer price index (all items). Correspondingly, the percentage of marketing expenditures devoted to promotional activities increased during this period, from 18% to almost 100%. The trade magazine Advertising Age publishes annual data on the A-S ratio for the 200 industries with the largest dollar volume of advertising in measured media. The A-S ratio for cigarettes was substantially higher than the median value in past decades, with correspondingly high rankings among the top-200 advertisers. A-S ratio = advertising-to-sales ratio (advertising expenditures as a percentage of net sales).
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Total advertising expenditures typically are analyzed as a percentage of sales illness and treatment cheap prometrium 100mg free shipping, which is known as the advertising-to-sales ratio 3 medications that affect urinary elimination cheap prometrium uk. Schonfeld and Associates172 reported that typical industry-level advertisingto-sales ratios average less than 3% medications 8 rights purchase line prometrium. The advertising-to-sales ratio for cigarettes Effects of Tobacco Advertising on Tobacco Consumption this section reviews another line of evidence from the empirical literature from econometric studies about the effects of tobacco advertising on tobacco consumption medicine x boston purchase prometrium paypal. Tobacco industry sources * In this case, the full price can be defined as the monetary price minus the value of coupons or merchandise. The Role of the Media Economics of Tobacco Advertising Industries with a fairly limited number of producers (oligopolistic), such as the tobacco industry, often prefer competition through advertising rather than price to increase their share of the market. Each firm is reluctant to use price competition if it believes that rivals also will cut their prices. If all firms cut prices, they all move down along an inelastic demand function similar to the industry demand function. Each firm attempts to advertise more than its rivals, which results in a high level of industry advertising. For such a product, in a period of increasing regulation, short-run sales maximization may be preferred to short-run profit maximization. As a response to this, tobacco firms may take a multiperiod perspective on sales and profits. In a multiperiod framework, advertising and pricing decisions are guided by the goal of sales maximization, which is expected to maximize profit in the long run. Retailer participation in cigarette company incentive programs is related to increased levels of cigarette advertising and cheaper cigarette prices in stores. However, the empirical studies of tobacco advertising reviewed below used historic data from the period when the ratio was relatively high. Advertising bans Examining the advertising response function can provide some insight into the consequences of these alternative methods of measuring advertising. An advertising response function describes the functional relationship between consumption and advertising. The advertising response function is nonlinear because of diminishing marginal effect. That is, while advertising increases consumption, increments of advertising yield ever smaller increments in consumption. National aggregate advertising expenditures from annual or quarterly time series * the literature on advertising response functions includes a variety of specifications. I n f l u e n c e o f To b a c c o M a r k e t i n g o n S m o k i n g B e h a v i o r Figure 7. Advertising response functions have been used for some time in brand-level research to illustrate the effect of advertising on consumption at various levels of advertising. For the tobacco industry, the industry-level response function would include all brands and variations of cigarettes, cigars, and other tobacco products. If advertising resulted only in brand switching, the industry-level response function would be horizontal. The assumption of a positively sloped industry-level response function provides a potential framework to analyze prior * research. The industry-level response functions are different from the brand-level response functions in that advertising-induced sales must come at the expense of sales of products from other industries or consumer savings. An industry response function using national data and an industry response function using market-level data are defined. The reason for two response functions is that the likely outcome (the relationship between advertising and consumption) of measuring advertising at the national level could be different from measuring advertising at the market level (geographic area). The vertical axis measures industry-level consumption at the national level, and the horizontal axis measures industry-level advertising expenditures at the national level. The vertical Specific media may be subject to diminishing marginal product, which would suggest that media diversification is necessary to maximize the effect of a given advertising budget. The theory of an industry response function also applies to counteradvertising, where the industry response function slopes downward and is subject to diminishing marginal product. Counteradvertising expenditures are relatively small, so a negative effect of these expenditures is likely to be observed in empirical studies. M = point around which changes in advertising expenditures produce observable changes in consumption. That is, advertising in one period will have a lingering, although smaller effect, in the next period.
Homologous recombination between copies of transposable elements has been an important force in producing gene duplications and other chromosome rearrangements symptoms in dogs 200mg prometrium with amex. Transposable elements can be divided into two major classes on the basis of structure and movement medicine 750 dollars purchase prometrium online now. Retrotransposons do not encode transposase symptoms for pink eye purchase 100 mg prometrium overnight delivery, but some types are similar in structure to retroviruses and carry sequences that produce reverse transcriptase treatment 7th feb bournemouth buy cheap prometrium online. Examples of retrotransposons include Ty elements in yeast and Alu sequences in humans. The Evolution of Transposable Elements Transposable elements exist in all organisms, often in large numbers. Transposable elements as genomic parasites As we have seen, many transposble elements leave a copy behind when they transpose to a new location (copy-and-paste Table 11. This ability to replicate and spread means that many transposable elements may serve no purpose for the cell; they exist simply because they are capable of replicating and spreading. The insertion of transposable elements into a gene will often destroy its function, with harmful consequences for the cell. Furthermore, the time and energy required to replicate large numbers of transposable elements are likely to place a metabolic burden on the cell. Thus, transposable elements can be thought of as genomic parasites that provide no benefit to the cell and may even be harmful. Their capacity to reproduce and spread is what makes them common, not their necessity to the cell. Transposable elements and genetic variation the process of evolution requires the presence of genetic variation within a population (see Chapter 26). Because transposable elements induce mutations and chromosome rearrangements, some scientists have argued that they exist because they generate genetic variation, which facilitates evolutionary adaptation. This idea suggests that a certain amount of genetic variation is useful because it allows a species to adapt to environmental change. However, much of what we know about transposable elements and evolution works against this hypothesis. Some mutations caused by transposable elements may allow species to evolve beneficial traits, but most mutations generated by random transposition have deleterious immediate effects and will likely be eliminated by natural selection. Furthermore, the fact that many organisms have evolved mechanisms to regulate transposition suggests that there is selective pressure to limit the extent of transposition. Thus, although transposable elments do generate genetic variation that is occasionally beneficial to the species, it is unlikely to be the only reason for their existence. Another cellular function that may have originated as the result of a transposable element is the process that maintains the ends of chromosomes in eukaryotic organisms. In germ cells and single-celled eukaryotic organisms, chromosome length is maintained by the enzyme telomerase. The mechanism used by telomerase is similar to the reverse-transcription process used in retrotransposition, and telomerase is evolutionarily related to the reverse transcriptases encoded by certain retrotransposons. These findings suggest that an invading retrotransposon in an ancestral eukaryotic cell may have provided the ability to copy the ends of chromosomes and eventually evolved into the gene that encodes the modern telomerase enzyme. Drosophila lacks the telomerase enzyme; retrotransposons appear to have resumed the role of telomere maintenance in this case. Imprecise excision may result in part of the transposon sequence being left behind when the transposon moves, leaving a genetic footprint of the transposable element at the site of exision. Alternatively, transposable elements may pick up parts of cellular genes when they excise, which then become part of the transposable element and are moved to new locations in the genome. This ability to pick up pieces of genes, shuffle them into new combinations, and move them to new locations provides a mechanism by which new genes may evolve. Domestication of Transposable Elements Regardless of the evolutionary reasons for their existence, some transposable elements have clearly evolved to serve useful purposes for their host cells. These transposons are sometimes refered to as domesticated, implying that their parasitic tendencies have been replaced by properties useful to the cell. In the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, a transposase protein encoded by a transposable element regulates plant genes and has become essential for normal plant growth.